Token Economies:
What is a Token Economy?:
A token economy is a "behavior change system consisting of three major components: (a) a specified list of target behaviors; (b) tokens or points that participants receive for emitting target behaviors; and (c) a menu of backup reinforcer items - preferred items, activities, or privileges - that participants obtain by exchanging tokens they have earned." (p. 560)
General Token Economy Process:
Designing a Token Economy:
The following are the basic steps involved in designing and preparing to implement a token economy.
Selecting Tokens:
"A token is a tangible system that can be given immediately after a behavior and exchanged later for known reinforcers." (Cooper, Heron, and Heward, 2007) Commonly used tokens include washers, checkers, coupons, poker chips, points, etc. Here are some things to take into consideration when selecting tokens
Identifying Target Behaviors and Rules:
The general guidelines for selecting behaviors for a token economy include:
Selecting a Menu of Backup Reinforcers:
Usually token economies can use naturally occurring activities and events as backup reinforcers. If naturally occurring events and activities do not work, then backup items that are not present in a particular program can be used (i.e., pictures of sports figures, CDs, movies, or edibles. These items should be considered only when more naturally occurring activities have proven to be ineffective.
Establishing a Ratio of Exchange:
When initially implementing the token economy the ratio between the number of tokens earned and the price of backup items should be small to provide immediate success for learners. After the initial implementation of the token economy, the ratio of exchange should be adjusted to maintain a high level of responding from the child. The following is a list of things to consider when establishing a ratio of exchange:
Writing Procedures to Specify What Happens if Token Requirements are not Met:
There will be times that a child does not meet the token requirements. In this case it useful to approach this situation in a manner that is direct restatement of the contingency: "I'm sorry, you don't have enough tokens to exchange." However, under normal circumstances a learner should always be able to meet the requirements of the token economy.
Implementing a Token Economy:
Initial Token Training:
The initial token training will vary from child to child depending on each child's functioning level. For high-functioning children and those with mild disabilities, initial training may require minimal time and effort and for the most part will consist of verbal instructions or modeling. Three steps are normally required in initial token training:
Withdrawing the Token Economy:
Before implementing the token economy, the therapists should plan on how the economy will be removed once the child has learned the targeted behaviors. There are various methods that have been used to withdraw token reinforcers gradually after criterion levels of behavior have been reached.
(b). The physical tokens are replaced with slips of paper
(c). The slips of paper are replaced with tally marks on an index card that is kept by the learners
(d). In a school setting the index card can now be taped to the learners desk
(e). The index card is removed from the learner and is kept by the analyst, but participants can check their
balance at any time
(f). The analyst keeps tallies, but no checking is allowed during the day. Totals are announced at the end of
the day, and then every other day
(g). The token system is no longer operative. The behavior analyst does not announce point totals even
though they are still kept.
We have provided a few videos that explain and model how to effectively implement a token economy:
A token economy is a "behavior change system consisting of three major components: (a) a specified list of target behaviors; (b) tokens or points that participants receive for emitting target behaviors; and (c) a menu of backup reinforcer items - preferred items, activities, or privileges - that participants obtain by exchanging tokens they have earned." (p. 560)
General Token Economy Process:
- The behaviors to be reinforced are identified and defined
- The token to be used is selected
- Backup reinforcers are made available that can be exchanged for the tokens.
Designing a Token Economy:
The following are the basic steps involved in designing and preparing to implement a token economy.
- Select tokens that will serve as a medium of exchange (i.e., plastic chips, points, stickers)
- Identify target behaviors and rules
- Select a menu of backup reinforcers
- Establish a ratio of exchange
- Write a procedure to specify when and how tokens will be dispensed and exchanged and what will happen if the requirements to earn a token are not met.
- Field-test the system before fully implementing the economy
Selecting Tokens:
"A token is a tangible system that can be given immediately after a behavior and exchanged later for known reinforcers." (Cooper, Heron, and Heward, 2007) Commonly used tokens include washers, checkers, coupons, poker chips, points, etc. Here are some things to take into consideration when selecting tokens
- The token should be safe. The token should not be harmful to the child.
- The therapist should control the token economy. This means that the therapist has full control of when the tokens are going to be delivered.
- Token should be durable because they may have to be used for extended periods of time. Additionally, they should be easily accessible to the therapist, easy to carry, handle, store, or accumulate.
- It is vital that the tokens be delivered IMMEDIATELY following the target response/behavior.
- The token itself is should NOT be an object that is desirable for the child. Desirable objects can distract the child from the task.
Identifying Target Behaviors and Rules:
The general guidelines for selecting behaviors for a token economy include:
- Selecting only measurable and observable behaviors
- Specifying criteria for successful task completion
- Starting with a small number of behaviors that include some behaviors that are easy for the child to successfully accomplish
- Be sure the individual possesses the prerequisite skills for all the target skills.
Selecting a Menu of Backup Reinforcers:
Usually token economies can use naturally occurring activities and events as backup reinforcers. If naturally occurring events and activities do not work, then backup items that are not present in a particular program can be used (i.e., pictures of sports figures, CDs, movies, or edibles. These items should be considered only when more naturally occurring activities have proven to be ineffective.
Establishing a Ratio of Exchange:
When initially implementing the token economy the ratio between the number of tokens earned and the price of backup items should be small to provide immediate success for learners. After the initial implementation of the token economy, the ratio of exchange should be adjusted to maintain a high level of responding from the child. The following is a list of things to consider when establishing a ratio of exchange:
- Keep initial rates low
- As token-earning behaviors and income increase, increase the cost of backup items, devalue tokens, and increase the number of backup items
- With increased earnings, increase the number of highly preferred backup reinforcers
- Increase the prices of necessary backup reinforcers more than the highly preferred backup reinforcers
Writing Procedures to Specify What Happens if Token Requirements are not Met:
There will be times that a child does not meet the token requirements. In this case it useful to approach this situation in a manner that is direct restatement of the contingency: "I'm sorry, you don't have enough tokens to exchange." However, under normal circumstances a learner should always be able to meet the requirements of the token economy.
Implementing a Token Economy:
Initial Token Training:
The initial token training will vary from child to child depending on each child's functioning level. For high-functioning children and those with mild disabilities, initial training may require minimal time and effort and for the most part will consist of verbal instructions or modeling. Three steps are normally required in initial token training:
- The child should be given an example of the system. The therapist should describe what the token is, the function of the token, the behaviors that will result in earning a token, and the amount of tokens needed to earn the backup reinforcers.
- The therapist models the procedure for token delivery. In other words, the therapist will show the child what happens when they will be receiving a token (i.e., a sticker placed on a token). Additionally, the child should also receive praise immediately following the occurrence of the target behavior in conjunction with the child earning the token.
- The therapist will model the procedure for token exchange.
Withdrawing the Token Economy:
Before implementing the token economy, the therapists should plan on how the economy will be removed once the child has learned the targeted behaviors. There are various methods that have been used to withdraw token reinforcers gradually after criterion levels of behavior have been reached.
- The token presentation should always be paired with social and verbal praise. This, in theory, should increase the reinforcing effects of the social praise and should be enough to maintain behaviors after the token economy has been withdrawn.
- The number of correct responses that are needed to earn a token should be gradually increased
- The duration the token economy is in effect should be gradually decreased.
- The number of backup reinforcers that are likely to be found in the child's natural environment should be gradually increased
- The "price" of highly preferred reinforcers should be systematically increased while keeping lower prices on less preferred items that are available for exchange.
- Physical evidence of the token should be faded over time. The following sequence of fading physical evidence of the token was taken from Copper, Heron, and Heward (2007, p. 566)
(b). The physical tokens are replaced with slips of paper
(c). The slips of paper are replaced with tally marks on an index card that is kept by the learners
(d). In a school setting the index card can now be taped to the learners desk
(e). The index card is removed from the learner and is kept by the analyst, but participants can check their
balance at any time
(f). The analyst keeps tallies, but no checking is allowed during the day. Totals are announced at the end of
the day, and then every other day
(g). The token system is no longer operative. The behavior analyst does not announce point totals even
though they are still kept.
We have provided a few videos that explain and model how to effectively implement a token economy: